Between the Poles

Importance of implementing cybersecurity for engineering projects using BIM

At GeoBusiness 2017 in London, Hugh Boyes, a Cyber Security specialist outlined some of the security risks of digital engineering and the importance of cybersecurity for engineering projects.  BIM models, floorplans and 3D LiDAR scans of sensitive buildings and infrastructure can often be found on the web.  He mentioned the floorplan of a major police station, a BIM model of a young offenders facility, and a BIM model of the Victoria Underground station.  All of these could potentially be very useful to anyone interested in disrupting infrastructure.  It is well-known that mapping underground infrastructure reduces risk during construction and also during disasters, natural and man-made.  However, it can also provide information about sensitive infrastructure.  Hugh mentioned substations as particularly sensitive elements of the energy grid.  With traditional centralized generation, substations are critical elements of the grid and are particularly vulnerable.  In many countries disrupting a small number of large substations can leave significant parts of the country without power.   (An advantage of a decentralized grid comprised of many microgrids with their own generating and storage facilities is that it is much less vulnerable.)

For people who are designing and building sensitive infrastructure using BIM, he recommended following the PAS1192-5 guidelines and incorporating security into the design from the start.  PAS 1192-5 specifies processes which will assist organizations in identifying and implementing measures to reduce the risk of loss or disclosure of information which could impact the safety and security of personnel and users of infrastructure or the built infrastructure itself.  PAS 1192-5 is applicable to any built asset or portfolio of assets which is deemed sensitive. It is for use by asset owners and organizations involved in the design, construction, maintenance and management of built assets, especially those who wish to protect their commercial information and/or intellectual property.  Hugh is the joint technical author of BS PAS1192-5 - Specification for security-minded building information modelling, digital built environments and smart asset management.

Mixed reality in the construction industry is becoming a reality

At the SPAR3D 2017 conference in Houston, I had the distinct feeling that we are on the cusp of an important inflection point where technology has evolved to the point that it is going to transform the world's construction sector.  Handheld scanners and mixed reality are two of the technologies that are set to revolutionize construction.  According to Gartner mixed reality is poised to attain what Gartner calls the plateau of productivity where a new technology is applied to real-world problems on a global scale.

In many countries with advanced economies the construction sector, which contributes about $ 10 trillion annually to the world's GDP, has not experienced improvement in productivity for 50 years.  During this same period productivity in the non-farm general industrial sector has more than doubled.  That means that the value produced by an hour of a construction worker's time is the same now as it was 50 years ago, whereas an automobile worker produces more than twice as much value as 50 years ago.  If infrastructure is going to attract the private investment from pension funds, insurance companies, and sovereign wealth funds that is required to maintain and build out the infrastructure we need over the next couple of decades, construction productivity has to improve.  The goal of improving productivity will drive investment in technology.  According to McKinsey the construction industry is poised for rapid digitization. Examples of the technology that is set to digitize and transform the construction industry were demonstrated at SPAR3D this year.

At this year's SPAR3D three companies in the construction sector, Gensler (a collaborative design firm), McCarthy (a commercial construction firm), and Martin Brothers Construction (a heavy civil construction firm), demonstrated how they were using mixed reality on real-world projects.  The tools they used include Enscape, Revizto, Revit, Sketchup Pro, Unity, 3dsMax, Umbra, Hololens, Sketchup Viewer on Hololens, Oculus and HTC Vive.  The application that wasn't shown this year, but I hope will be next year at SPAR3D, is Fuzor.

Cody Nowak of Martin Brothers demonstrated building a bathroom pod with Hololens.  The bathroom pod was designed using a standard design application sush as Revit or Sketchup, then projected onto the reality of a shop floor were it was constructed using the full-scale virtual reality projection of the design into the shop.

Gensler described collaborative design where two or more designers and stake holders can share a mixed reality space where they work collaboratively on a design.

McCarthy demonstrated how easy it was to work in a virtual reality space with a headset and handheld controllers.  They asked a member of the audience with no mixed reality experience to don the headset and controllers.  Within a few minutes she was able to move around in the virtual reality - we could see what she saw on a separate screen.  Using the handheld controllers she was also able to move things around in the virtual space.  She moved furniture and furnishings on the wall.  She even threw a stool across the virtual room.

Many of these mixed reality visualizations can be used on handhelds.  Workers in the field or during operations and maintenance can use these applications to inspect and query facilities to access inspection and maintenance reports for equipment they point at in a mixed reality environment.

The next step, which was not demonstrated at SPAR3D this year but I expect will be next year, is bidirectional communication link between the mixed reality environment and the authoring design tool, whether Revit or Sketchup.  This will make it possible for changes made in the mixed reality environment to be visible in Revit or Sketchup where they can be incorporated in the design.  The reverse of this is where design changes in Revit or Sketchup are visible in real-time in the mixed reality environment.

The key elements of mixed reality as it applies to the construction industry are

• bidirectional link between the mixed reality environment and the design tool enabling users to design in their authoring software and view the changes to their design in real time as well as create design changes directly in the mixed reality environment and send those changes back into their authoring software.
• mobile applications of mixed reality for people in the field or in an operating environment
• real-time collaboration in a mixed reality environment independently or simultaneously from anywhere on the globe from a computer or mobile device

We want to be able to don our VR gear and visualize the model we are working on. If there are design changes, we want to be able to make and update them in real time and then jump right back into the mixed reality environment.  We also want guests to be able to view the our design changes in the mixed reality environment as we make them.  Stakeholders need to be able to explore, review and modify projects independently or simultaneously from anywhere on the globe from their computer or mobile device.  We need real-time collaboration to actively review a design with stakeholders, or let collaborators review and make changes to the model in real-time.  This is not pie-in-the-sky dreams, people are doing these things already with the software tools I mentioned above.  I don't think the question is if, it is how rapidly these tools will proliferate in the construction industry.  BIM and digital scanning of different types have already proliferated over the globe and I expect with this digital foundation, these newer tools will spread even faster.

Smart building market expected to grow 34% annually

A report "Smart Building Market - Global Forecast to 2021" projects that  the smart building market will grow by 34 % annually from 2016 through 2021.  The market size, estimated at $ 5.7 Billion in 2016, is expected to grow to $ 25 Billion in 2021.  From Markets and Markets' perspective the smart building industry is comprised of intelligent security systems, building energy management systems, infrastructure management systems (parking, water, and elevators), and network and communications management systems.  The major vendors covered in the smart building market for this study include ABB Group (Switzerland), International Business Machines (IBM) Corporation (U.S.), Schneider Electric SE (France), Siemens AG (Germany), Cisco Systems, Inc. (U.S.), Honeywell International Inc.(U.S), Delta Controls (Canada), Johnson Controls (U.S), United Technologies Corporation (U.S), and BuildingIQ (Australia).  Accenture, TCS, Wipro, HP, and Capgemini are market players providing assessment, consulting, system integration, and support services to smart building solutions.

The drivers for this boom in smart building technology are energy efficiency and reducing CO2 emissions, government initiatives for smart building projects, growing demand for integrated security and safety systems, and the proliferation of sensors and smart appliances comprising the Internet of Things (IoT).

According to the International Energy Agency, about 40% of the world’s energy is consumed by buildings.  72% of electric power demand in the U.S. is from buildings.  Growing urbanization is expected to increase energy demand from buildings. 

Europe's 20-20-20 goal and mandating near-zero-energy buildings starting in 2018/2019 is expected to drive the largest geographic market share in the smart building market.

Developing a national 3D strategy in the Netherlands

At the GeoBIM Building and Infrastructure Conference in Amsterdam Rob van de Velde and Friso Penninga of Geonovum presented an overview of what has been achieved to date with respect to 3D data and technology at the national level in the Netherlands and what they see as the next major step, the development of a national 3D strategy. 

 

BIM and geospatial (2D and 3D) are key underpinnings of 3D.  The Netherlands has been at the forefront of implementing BIM in the construction industry.  Just as importantly in the long term, the Netherlands has been leading the geospatial-BIM integration initiative.  It has long been recognized that geospatial/BIM integration is essential for building and infrastructure operation and maintenance or what is referred to as full-lifecycle BIM.

 

Years ago private Dutch engineering and construction companies began adopting an integrated geospatial/BIM approach to construction.  I blogged previously about a firm Royal BAM Group nv / BAM Infraconsult that adopted integrated BIM and GIS because many of its projects require full life-cycle BIM.  At the first GeoBIM conference in Amsterdam, Jothijs van Gaalen gave some real world examples of Design, Build, Finance and Maintain (DBFM) highway construction that included GIS+BIM integration. BAM's motivation for investing in BIM+GIS are market developments especially more complex construction assignments and an increasing demand from customers for service provision throughout the entire life cycle of a project.   As another example, ARCADIS Netherlands has delivered a number of projects that integrate geospatial into the design process. 

The Netherlands has also been leading in the development and application of open BIM/geospatial standards‎ in the construction industry including NL/SfB, BS&I, ETIM, CB-NL, IMGeo, CityGML, NLCS, GB-CAS, COINS, IFC, VISI, SALES, National Model BIM Protocol, and National Model BIM Implementation Plan.  The Netherlands has created a BIM Loket (BIM Gateway) that is intended to be a national portal for information about BIM and for management of open BIM standards in the Netherlands.  It provides a central information centre for open BIM standards including related geospatial standards. 

Geospatial

Within government the Environment Planning Act is responsible for a growing focus on the physical environment.  There is also a greater desire for an integrated approach to modeling the physical environment.  Citizens are asking questions that require accurate 3D modeling, for example, noise, air quality, light and shadow, and viewports.

There have been several initiatives at the national level in the Netherlands.

• 2010 3D pilot exploring possibilities of 3D including IMGeo and CityGML
• 2012 3D pilot exploring Geo-BIM integration
• 2014 "Breakthrough 3D" - application of 3D in many domains

The last "Breakthrough 3D" initiative revealed that 3D technology had matured and that there were many initiatives asking for uniform 3D data.

BIM

The Dutch Building Information Council (BIR) has been encouraging BIM for a long time - I blogged about BIR and BIM in the Netherlands previously.  One of my takeways from the recent RICS BIM conference in London was that there is a desperate need for standards, especially to classify the huge amount of date in addition to the 3D geometry that accumulates during a construction project.  Much of this data would be useful to the FM folks who are responsible for operating and maintaining the building after construction if it were accessible.

From both the perspective of geospatial data for modeling the environment and BIM data for modeling the built environment, it's time for the next step:  a government initiative for a national 3D strategy.  The concept is to create a 3D production chain, capable of creating timely, accurate and reliable 3D geo-information.

Gap analysis - what's available vs what's needed

The Netherlands has a digital elevation model ( AHN or Actual Height Model) with nationwide coverage but the update cycle is on the order of eight years.  What's needed is a nationwide point cloud that is updated at least once a year.  There are a number of ways including new technologies this could help achieve this.

The Netherlands has national 2D core data, large scale topographic data that is open and universally accessible.  It has no equivalent in 3D.  One way to generate this rapidly are reliable techniques for automating the extraction of buildings, infrastructure and natural features from point clouds.

The Netherlands has a national portal for disseminating 2D data.  The national geoportal PDOK has experienced  3-4 billion hits in 2016.  For 3D data, PDOK needs to be upgraded to be able to serve 3D data. 

 

For 3D data there are standards for exchanging 3D data about cities and BIM model such as CityGML and IFC.  What's needed are standards for distributing and viewing 3D data.  Another important outstanding challenge is developing an interface between CityGML and IFC.

Rob emphasized that developing a national 3D standard is about identifying and involving stakeholders, understanding user requirements, and realizing the individual components, but more importantly it is about aligning individual initiatives, thus optimizing 3D supply chain.

Net zero energy building market growing rapidly

Energy efficiency

The IEA has projected that a cumulative $44 trillion in investment will be needed in the global energy supply over the next 15 years. Another $23 trillion will be required for energy efficiency improvements.  Worldwide 40% of energy is consumed by buildings.  In the U.S. 70 % of electric power goes to buildings.  Measures aimed at improving the efficiency of buildings have been introduced in Europe, the U.S., Japan and other jurisdictions.

Zero energy buildings

Zero energy buildings are loosely defined as buildings that generate as much energy as they consume.  But there is as yet no single standards body defining what a zero energy building is.  Different countries and even within the same country different bodies define zero energy buildings in different ways.  According to a new report from Navigant Research, global zero energy building revenue is projected to grow from less than $100 billion in 2016 to $1.4 trillion by 2035.

Nearly zero energy buildings in the E.U.

The European Union (EU) has taken a leading role in focussing energy conservation efforts on the energy efficiency of buildings.  The EU has mandatory carbon emission reduction standards, referred to as the 20-20-20 standard, which among other things requires the EU to improve energy efficiency by 20% by 2020.  Another important objective is reducing its dependence on imported energy, which currently accounts for half of EU energy usage.  In 2002 the European Commission promulgated the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) which requires all EU member states to upgrade their building regulations and to introduce energy certification schemes for buildings.  About a year ago the European Commission (EC) proposed a new Energy Efficiency Directive (EED) , also known as the EPBD recast, which imposes a legal obligation for all member states to establish energy saving schemes, with the public sector leading by example.

Energy efficiency is especially critical for Germany which not only needs to comply with the 20-20-20 standard, but also to find energy sources to replace its (non-emitting) nuclear power plants that are scheduled to be closed by 2022.  In Germany buildings currently account for 40 percent of power consumption and a third of CO2 emissions. The German 40 year master plan calls for aggressive energy efficiency policies including new insulation standards and for all buildings in Germany to be refurbished in line with the new insulation standards by 2050, reducing energy requirements for heating by 20 percent by 2020 and by 80 percent by 2050, and providing tax relief on energy taxes to companies contributing to energy savings.

A major area of focus in the EU is “nearly zero energy” buildings.  A nearly zero energy building on average over a year generates as much energy from renewable energy sources as it consumes.  For new buildings, the EPBD recast fixes 2020/2021 as the deadline for all new buildings to be designed to be nearly zero energy.  For public buildings the deadline is even sooner, by 2018/2019.

Zero emissions buildings in Japan

Japan‘s announced mid-term emission reduction target is to cut Japan's GHG emissions by 25% by 2020 compared with 1990, subject to international negotiations.  But Japan has said that it plans to revise this target in light of the Fukushima accident and presumably in light of the decision to shut down its nuclear power plants by 2040.  According to an analysis by the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI), the largest reduction will need to be realized in commercial sector, by about 27%. Residential/commercial-sector accounts for 30% or more of final energy consumption and has increased remarkably compared to the industrial and transportation sectors.  Energy saving measures for commercial buildings are urgently required, since the commercial sector including office buildings consumes more than half of total energy consumption in the residential/commercial sector. Moreover its growth has been more striking than that of the residential sector.

The Government of Japan put forward its "zero emissions buildings" target in April, 2009.  It defines a zero emissions building (ZEB) as one that has net zero CO2 emissions on an annual basis through energy efficiency and renewable energy generation on-site.  The announced objective ia that all new public buildings will be zero emissions by 2030.

Zero net energy buildings in the U.S.

The U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA 2007) requires that by 2030 all new Federal facilities must be "zero net energy" (ZNE) buildings.  On October 19, 2007, the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC) adopted aggressive targets for ZNE

• All new residential construction in California will be zero net energy by 2020
• All new commercial construction in California will be zero net energy by 2030
• 50% of existing commercial buildings will be retrofit to ZNE by 2030.

According to the New Buildings Institute (NBI) there are 332 ZNE (zero net energy) verified and emerging commercial and multifamily buildings in the U.S. and Canada. The ZNE buildings on this list have either achieved or committed to the goal of producing as much renewable energy onsite as they consume over the course of a year.

Low carbon climate-resilient infrastructure requires private funding

A Report by the Global Commission on the Economy and Climate has recommended that since more than 60% of the world’s greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are sourced from the world's existing stock of infrastructure, ensuring infrastructure is built to deliver sustainability is the only way to meet the COP21 goal  of keeping warming below 2°C and to guarantee long-term, inclusive and resilient growth. Infrastructure underpins core economic activity and is an essential foundation for achieving inclusive sustainable growth.  Investing in sustainable infrastructure is key for reigniting global growth and reducing climate risk.

The Global Commission is chaired by former President of Mexico Felipe Calderón and co-chaired by the climate economist Lord Nicholas Stern.

The report estimates that $90 trillion in sustainable infrastructure investment will be required over the next 15 years.  It stresses that this will require a shift in the world's construction and financial sectors to ensure that this money, which will be increasingly private, is spent on low-carbon, energy-efficient projects. 

Change in infrastructure spending required for a 2°C scenario (percentage change in expenditure over 2015-2030 compared to Business-as-usual)

The report has adopted a broad definition of infrastructure which includes both traditional types of infrastructure; energy, public transport, buildings, water supply, and sanitation and also natural infrastructure; forest landscapes, wetlands and watershed protection.  Infrastructure underpins core economic activity and is an essential foundation for achieving inclusive sustainable growth. It is indispensable for development and poverty elimination, as it enhances access to basic services, education and work opportunities, and can boost human capital and quality of life.

Investment is needed to replace ageing infrastructure in advanced economies and to accommodate higher growth and structural change in emerging market and developing countries. This will require a significant increase globally, from the estimated US$3.4 trillion per year currently invested in infrastructure to about US$6 trillion per year. The Global Commission found that it does not need to cost much more to ensure that this new infrastructure is compatible with climate goals, and the additional up-front costs can be fully offset by efficiency gains and fuel savings over the infrastructure lifecycle.

Importance of private infrastructure financing

Transforming the financial system and its intermediaries is essential to scaling up sustainable infrastructure finance.  Public finance and investment will continue to play a critical role, particularly in low-income countries.  But large amounts of private capital are needed and this will only flow if the right market signals are present within the financial system. The report suggests that reforms are needed in the financial regulatory system as well as other policy reforms, specifically, to price carbon to level the playing field between sustainable and unsustainable options in order to encourage private investment in sustainable infrastructure.

Private investment requires financial returns.  Efficiency in construction and operation and maintenance of infrastructure is essential. Increasing productivity drives technological innovation. Many governments as well as private sector engineering and construction firms have identified building information modeling (BIM) as a key foundation for increasing construction productivity.  Owners are beginning to recognize the benefits of full lifecycle BIM especially when augmented by geospatial technology.

Energy

The report estimates that energy infrastructure will require investment of US$25 trillion, or nearly a third of total core infrastructure investment over the coming 15 years. In addition energy efficiency will require investment of about the same magnitude.  Building sustainable energy infrastructure encourages economic growth, reduces air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, and plays a key role in building resilience.

Energy efficiency

The report found that energy efficiency is a highly cost-effective way to manage demand and reduce the investment requirements for overall energy supply. Increasing energy efficiency in industry, buildings and transport could achieve up to half of the emission reductions needed globally to peak greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 according to the IEA.  Energy efficiency investments in IEA member countries since 1990 have avoided US$5.7 trillion of energy expenditure.  The IEA estimates further investments could boost global GDP by US$18 trillion by 2035, increasing growth by as much as 1.1% per year.  Energy efficiency measures are estimated to create up to three times as many jobs as fossil fuel supply investments per dollar of investment.

A key recommendation of the Global Commission’s 2015 report was to scale up commitments by development banks working with governments and the private sector to invest at least US$1 trillion per year by 2030 in clean energy, including energy efficiency.

Air pollution

Outdoor air pollution, much of which is associated with fossil fuels, is linked to nearly 4 million premature deaths per year. In China, it is estimated that air pollution killed around 1.6 million people in China in 2013. In India, the air pollution toll in 2013 stood at 1.4 million deaths.  In Europe, coal plant emissions account for more than 18,200 premature deaths, about 8,500 new cases of chronic bronchitis, and over 4 million lost working days each year.  Analysis for the Global Commission shows that the health and mortality burden of air pollution amounts to as much as 4% or more of GDP in some countries. Recent analysis by the OECD has found that globally air pollution-related healthcare costs alone are projected to increase from US$21 billion in 2015 to US$176 billion in 2060.

Cities

It is estimated that by 2050, two-thirds of the global population will live in cities, and over 70% of the global demand for infrastructure over the next 15 years is expected to be in urban areas.  How cities develop is important both for growth and for climate change.  The report emphasizes that investment in sustainable infrastructure is essential to make cities inclusive, safe, and resilient.

Global Commission

The global commission is supported by governmental and private sector leaders: Sharan Burrow, General Secretary, International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), Australia; Suma Chakrabarti, President, European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD); Helen Clark, Administrator, UN Development Programme (UNDP); Former Prime Minister of New Zealand; Jamshyd Godrej Chairman and Managing Director, Godrej & Boyce Mfg Co. Ltd., India; Stuart Gulliver, Group Chief Executive, HSBC Holdings plc and Chairman of The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited; Angel Gurría, Secretary-General, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD); Chad O. Holliday, Chairman, Shell, United States; and Sri Mulyani Indrawati, Finance Minister of Indonesia

Development of an open spatially-enabled BIM query language

Introduction

Building Information Models are comprehensive digital representations of buildings which include 3D geometry and associated data. They are widely used for designing, engineering, and constructing buildings (vertical BIM) and infrastructure (horizontal BIM). Owners are beginning to see value in BIM models and data for operating buildings. A BIM model includes not just the 3D geometry of all building elements and the enclosed spaces, but also semantic information representing both the type of the elements, the relationships between them (defined by the data model) and data associated with the geometric elements.  With BIM models being mandated in countries like the UK, Finland and Singapore, and in France and Russia in the near future,  and the increasing adoption of BIM by the private sector in the U.S. and other countries, the volume of BIM data is growing rapidly.  By merging models from different disciplines into common virtual models, the amount of information stored in such multidomain repositories quickly becomes large and complex even for average projects.  Centralized or distributed repositories enable the creation, integration and maintenance of large quantities of data from various stakeholders involved in the planning and building process and the wide range of specialized software tools used by these stakeholders.  Many ways of creating, manipulating and visualizing BIM and CAD models have been developed including CAD, Solibri, Navisworks, GTPPM, mvdXML, PQML, EQL, SQL, XSLT/XQuery, SPARQL, Gremlin, Linq, SDAI, and generic programming languages.  However, the development of a general, intuitive query language for BIM models including geometric and related information remains a challenge.

The information needs of individual stakeholders in different parts of the construction process are very different. For example, a structural engineer does not require all the information available in the overall building model such as the detailed specifications of a suspended ceiling. This makes the extraction of partial model subsets or domain specific views on large models necessary.  In addition regulations, energy performance modeling, and building maintenance require finding specific facilities among the building assets. 

In the last few years research has focussed on the development of an open, domain-specific query language for BIM.   Most of the this research has focussed on querying, updating and deleting data stored in Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) models.  The Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) is a vendor neutral and open model that defines more than 650 entities and a few thousand attributes.  Most industry software BIM tools  are able to export IFC models, though there is typically some information loss. The bimserver.org platform is an open repository of IFC models and already provides a Java API to extract partial building information models from a repository.

Open query languages

Many existing database applications use the Structured Query Language (SQL), an ANSI/ISO standard with spatial extensions standardized by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC), as the standard language. SQL makes it possible to create, read, update and delete records in a Relational Database Management System (RDBMS).  But the applicability of SQL in a BIM context is limited.  SQL is based on operations on data stored in tables.  Application to IFC, as a BIM example, would require storing 600 entities along with their thousands of attributes in individual tables.  Severe performance and scalability issues are associated with using SQL for BIM.  In addition the complexity of IFC-based queries would rapidly become too complex.

The W3C Data Activity has defined a collection of technologies comprising a “web of data” where information is easily shared and reused across applications.  Key parts of this technology stack are the RDF (Resource Description Framework) data model, the OWL Web Ontology Language and the SPARQL protocol and RDF query language which has been standardized by the W3C.  The Resource Description Framework (RDF) is a directed, labeled graph data format for representing information on the Web.  RDF and SPARQL  enables interoperability among distributed heterogeneous information systems making possible queries that span several repositories and link information from different sources.  Specifically in a BIM context it enables ad hoc queries of sub models that reside in repositories maintained by the different stakeholders in a building project.

Spatial queries

BIM data models can be simple or complex.  A complex data model includes logical relationships between building elements, such as windows and walls, walls and storeys, and so on.  These relationships are created at design time.  A simple model may not include any explicit relationships. For example, there may not be any way to determine which windows are associated with a wall except visually.  Spatial queries enables relationships to be determined after the creation of the BIM model.  For example, a spatial query can find all the windows in a wall, all the walls of a storey, or all the HVAC and plumbing facilities in a storey.

The efficient implementation of spatial BIM queries requires 3D spatial indexing such as octree and multi-dimensional r-tree indexes and algorithms.  It has been known for a long time that spatial indexing is a key technology enabling efficient GIS systems.  Very early on in the development of spatial indexes it was realized that these are domain specific.  Several GIS systems support an extended spatial SQL based on quadtree or r-tree indexes.  These systems evolved historically from a 2D geometric representation approach.  However, the functionality for processing 3D geometry in many GIS systems is restricted and the performance of the available tools is unsuitable for complex building data sets.  Therefore, it has been argued that a specialized tool is required to handle queries against elaborated BIM models containing vast numbers of elements and detailed geometry representations.  Such a query language enables the spatial analysis of BIM models and the extraction of partial models that fulfill certain spatial constraints. Among other features, it includes operators that reflect the topological relationships between 3D spatial objects including "within", "contain", "touch", "overlap", "disjoint" and "equal" in 3D space.  Both octrees and multi-dimensional r-tree indexes have been investigated as a basis for an efficient BIM query language.

Open BIM query language

A BIM query language, dubbed BIMQL, has been proposed as an extendable, open, domain specific query language for BIM models. It can be used to select and update partial aspects in building information models.  A limited implementation of the language has been built on top of the bimserver.org platform.  It is not complete, in particular it does not support spatial queries, but has provided a useful vantage point for future research, discussion and development on the development for end-user interfaces to complex BIM models as well as the composition of service-oriented architectures.

Unlike traditional data modeling approaches which are limited by the scope of their underlying schemas, RDF and related technologies can provide an open and common environment for sharing, integrating and linking data from different domains and data sources.  In comparison with domain-specific query languages, SPARQL is especially applicable for scenarios when data from multiple sources are needed.  Some important scenarios include

• All building objects should be classified according to the local building code
• Where are the locations of companies which produce the materials used in walls placed in the hall ?

The interesting thing about these scenarios is that they require the BIM geometry and data plus other external data. This is the type of query that the W3C semantic web technologies are designed to support.

In the AEC domain, a typical use case is data integrity validation against BIM standards or building code requirements.  A Dutch example is the Dutch BIM standard requires that all building elements should be associated with appropriate building storey.  Provided that the building model is represented in the standardized ifcOWL, it is possible to check this spatial containment relationship using off-the-shelf SPARQL implementation.

Currently SPARQL does not contain the vocabularies or functions required by many use cases in the construction domain.  Recently researchers have proposed extending SPARQL with a set of domain-specific functions for the construction world. There are precedents for this strategy.  In 2011 the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) released GeoSPARQL, a geographic query language for RDF data, which extended SPARQL with geospatial functions that enabled spatial queries.  The advantages of this approach is that not only are the extended AEC functions compatible with existing SPARQL environments, but they can also be used to query building data combined with data from other fields.

But standard SPARQL can only crawl the data graph according to the structure of the BIM data model.  There are many use cases that depend on geometric relationships that cannot be handled by off-the-shelf SPARQL. To address this SPARQL has been extended to include spatial operators "touches", "intersects", "disjoints", and "contains" and well as other domain-specific functions.

An example of a simple spatial query using a spatial extension is finding all walls which contain or adjoin doors.  This requires the spatial function "touches" to find doors that are in or near walls.

As in the case of geospatial data, additional domain-specific functions are required to provide the necessary functionality.  For example, functions were added for different ways of measuring distance (spt: defines the spatial extensions namespace)

• spt:distance is a function to return the shortest distance between two products in 3D space.
• spt:distanceZ is a function to return the shortest vertical distance between two products.
• spt:distanceXY shortest distance between the projections of two products on XY plane

Another example is finding all windows that are close (less than 300 units) to a column.

Implementation and testing

As a proof of concept, the extensions were implemented
based on the open source Jena ARQ query engine.  An objective was to try to  minimize low level coding to make the function implementations more portable and more transparent for public reviews.

As a practical example, a case study of building code compliance checking using the International Building Code 705.8.4 (IBC 2006) was tested successfully using a BIM model of a building with 4 floors.

The researchers report that the main limitations of the open SPARQL-based approach they have proposed relate to the way it was implemented.  The implementation is not completely portable and performance could be improved, by integrating existing geometric libraries, for example.   Future research will address these issues and investigate more use cases to extend functions for specific domains and to combine more data from different sources in the construction industry.

Sources

Querying Linked Building Data Using SPARQL with Functional Extensions, 2016, Chi Zhang and Jakob Beetz

Processing of Topological BIM Queries using Boundary Representation Based Methods, Simon Daum and André Borrmann, Advanced Engineering Informatics, Volume 28, Issue 4, October 2014, Pages 272–286

BIMQL – An open query language for building information models, W. Mazairac and J. Beetz, Adv. Eng. Informat. (2013)

Topological analysis of 3D building models using a spatial query language, André Borrmann and Ernst Rank, Advanced Engineering Informatics 23(4):370-385 · October 2009

Thanks to Léon van Berlo of TNO for pointing me to this research.

Crowd behaviour modeling with BIM

I spent a fascinating day at the CanBIM Regional Session & Technology Exhibition in Toronto.  I was very impressed by how much things relating to BIM have progressed in Canada, which has generally lagged the countries spearheading BIM development, partly because of government inaction.

One of the most interesting presentations today was by Erin Morrow of Arup who talked about two pedestrian simulation products he has been responsible for developing, MassMotion and Flow.   These are 3D agent-based models.  They are based on real spaces with continuously connected 3D geometry and crowd interactions.  Agents have size and acceleration, personalities that prefer things like avoiding going up stairs.  They can dynamically assesses their environment and make routing decisions.  Social forces determine how agents respond to their environment, other people, and goals.  They try very hard not to hit obstacles or bump other agents.  Agents are able to make autonomous decisions based on this continuous space.  For example, MassMotion can simulate how agents will be behave when faced with a choice between a crowded elevator or empty stairs. 

There are also tools for assessing the result of a simulation including 3D dynamic visualization and various quantitative metrics such as density in various parts of the model, how long it takes people to get from one point to another, what route do most people take, flow rates through doors and up escalators, and and others.

The simulation tool defines portals, where people can enter or leave from, spaces where agents can go anywhere, connectors that connect rooms and other features.  Erin demonstrated live how to create a simple model with two rooms, connected by a door, with a portal where people entered and an exit portal.  He created a simulation where 100 people enter the first room every minute and visualized the crowd flow in 3D.  It was fascinating to watch how people bunched in front of one of the connecting doors and then the other.

The simulation geometry can be developed from scratch in MassMotion.  But for complex structures it is much simpler to import a BIM model (MassMotion imports IFC models from a variety of software including AutoCAD, Microstation, SketchUp, Rhino, and Revit. ) to create spaces and connectors including stairs and escalators.  Erin demonstrated doing this with a BIM model of an airport.  MassMotion was able to correctly identify 90% of the elements it recognizes such as rooms, doors, stairs and escalators.  In the demonstration some editing was required to make sure there was a continuous geometry.  For example, an escalator needed editing to logically connect to the upstairs floor. Then the user adds other information such as portals, sources where people come from, sinks where people go and rates of flow through the portals people enter from.  People may come from outdoors or train cars and they may be going to gates to catch planes.

The software has roles to play during design, during construction, and as a management tool throughout the lifespan of a building and surrounding areas.  It can be used operationally during construction to design alternate routes during construction.  The software was used to simulate passenger movements during a full day at the new Jetblue T5 terminal at JFK airport in New York with the objective of ensuring passenger comfort and fluidity of motion in the terminal.

There are many other applications used by engineers and planners including evacuation analysis.  One of the interesting results that Erin mentioned was that the Roman Coliseum built in 70 CE could be evacuated in 15 minutes, the same time it is estimated it takes to evacuate the recently built Olympic stadium (the Bird's Nest) in Beijing.

Russian government to mandate BIM from 2019 ?

It has been announced (September 14) by the Minister of Construction, Housing and Utilities of the Russian Federation that Building Information Modeling (BIM) may be made compulsory on all construction projects commissioned by the Russian government beginning in 2019.  He referred positively to the United Kingdom's  experience with BIM.

This follows on several recent developments in the UK and the EU. The recent EU Procurement Directive (2014) permits member states to mandate BIM.

“For public works contracts and design contests, Member States may require the use of specific electronic tools, such as building information  electronic modelling tools or similar”.

A number of countries around the world have implemented BIM strategies. The top three economies in the EU have implemented (UK) or are in the process of developing (Germany and France) BIM strategies.  The UK mandated BIM for national government procurement beginning in April 2016.  Norway (2007), Finland (2007), Denmark (2007) and the Netherlands (2012) have already implemented BIM strategies for public procurement.

In Germany, the Minister of Transport and Digital Infrastructure created the "Digital Building Platform", a BIM task group whose goal is to lay the groundwork for public sector BIM adoption.  This group is working in the context of Germany’s "Reform Commission for Major Projects" which is examining why several major public sector projects in Germany were seriously over budget or were late.

France has created “Le Plan Transition Numérique dans le Bâtiment”, a task group which has been tasked with working out the details of a BIM mandate from the Ministry of Dwellings (Ministère du Logement).  The mandate could be applied as early as 2017, but may only cover housing and general construction, and not civil engineering and infrastructure.

The combined economic weight of Germany, France, and the UK behind BIM would mean that most public procurement in the EU would require BIM.

A recent Research and Markets study has forecasted that the international building information modeling (BIM) market will reach $11.7 billion by 2022, with a compound annual growth rate of 21.6% between 2016 and 2022.

On-site AR visualization of BIM designs in an urban environment

There are two advances in technology that are having almost as much impact on mapping our world and tracking the location of things in it as the introduction of the GPS.  The development of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) in the 1980s and 1990s has made possible the mass production of micro inertial measurement units (IMU) comprised of a combination of accelerometers, gyroscopes, and magnetometers.   These have enabled the smart phone which contains a range of sensors, typically an accelerometer, thermometer, gyroscope, pressure sensor, humidity sensor, light sensor, location sensor (GPS),and a magnetometer.  The second major advance is fast structure-from-motion (SfM) algorithms.  One of the first applications is simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) technology which was developed for autonomous vehicles. In 2012 GeoSLAM was developed which made it possible to solve a major spatial problem, accurately tracking the location of a person inside a building or in an obstructed environment such as a city.  Recently SfM has been successfully applied to indoor mapping in the form of new professional-level products from Indoor Reality and Leica Geosystems (Pegasus Backpack).

It turns out that structure-from-motion technologies can also be used for on-site visualization of a virtual BIM design in a real urban context.  At this year's Geo Business 2016 I had a chance to talk to Crispin Hoult about an augmented reality product called UrbanPlanAR his company Linknode is developing with SfM technology from Heriot-Watt University that is designed to do this on consumer handheld smart devices such as an iPad.

Background

For years researchers and technologists have been struggling with a major spatial challenge - accurately tracking the location of a person in an obstructed environment such as a city or inside a building in 6 dimensions, 3D location and 3D orientation.  Stucture-from-motion solves this problem and enables you to track your position and your orientation in an obstructed environment where GNSS satellite signals are unavailable or unreliable. Typically input from an inertial measurement unit (IMU) and LiDAR is used to construct in real-time a 3D map of the immediate environment including objects such as walls and other objects.  As you move, the map is reconstructed and this is used to record your trajectory.  The algorithm is robust and helps to addresses some of the problems, such as drift, that results from using just an accelerometer.  

Indoor mapping products, such as those based on GeoSLAM, assume that you are working in an unknown environment.  But what if you already have information about the environment in the form of GIS maps, point clouds, and other georeferenced information ? Tracking your location in a known environment using just a smart handheld device is the problem that Crispin Hoult and his company Linknode are addressing.  The specific business opportunity he is targeting with this technology is on-site (in-field) augmented reality visualization of BIM designs for new buildings with a consumer smart handheld. 

Technically SfM algorithms require multi-sensor input.  The typical smart phone or tablet has many motion tracking MEMS devices built into it.  If you are outside in an unobstructed environment, the GPS sensor can reliably report your location to within 5 or 10 meters.  But when you enter an obstructed environment where you have reliable georeferenced information, you need an algorithm that uses the camera and the inertial navigation sensors in the handheld tablet to accurately track its location and orientation in real-time.  Crispin has been working with Heriot-Watt university to "mobilize" an algorithm that does just this. Basically the algorithm uses “visual-inertial tracking” for the online tracking of the 3D position and 3D orientation of the tablet. This is supported by ‘prior’ learning of the visual and structural appearance of the environment through structure-from-motion (SFM).

Crispin, what is the business problem that UrbanPlanAR addresses ?

We are targeting UrbanPlanAR at on-site visualization using only a consumer smart handheld.  We are making it possible for an architect, owner, or city planner to come to a site with a handheld tablet and in real-time overlay a BIM model showing the design for a new building in the context of the real world.  This is an application of augmented reality.  What you see on the tablet is the real world and into that we superimpose the BIM model.  Our focus right now is to visualize the building design in its urban context - making it possible to walk around in the area and see the building from different viewpoints. We add value by providing more trusted, more contextual visualizations so people can make decisions and engage more with the planning process.

The alternative way of doing this is to create a completely virtual world (often referred to as black box), but then you have problems with resolution and realism.  We have research carried out by the University of Glasgow that shows that by doing on-site visualization and not blackboxing it, it becomes more trustworthy and enables more engagement from stakeholders.

Another way to look at the business value of UrbanPlanAR is that it adds value to your BIM investment. Designers and contractors invest in BIM because it enables automated clash detection, material takeoff, quantity surveying, construction staging and many other applications. One of the important value-adds that hasn't been fully recognized is visualization.  Our technology can be another strong reason for creating a BIM model in the first place.  If you have already developed a BIM model, it adds value to your model. With our software you can take your BIM model, walk out to the proposed site and show all stakeholders - potential customers, city planners, city engineers, and nearby land and building owners what the proposed structure is going to look like on site, in a real world context.

How does this work, what do I need to do to make this augmented reality visualization of a building design ?

The first step is to choose the context.  Unlike the traditional approach where we would choose a location from which we want to view the building design, with UrbanPlanAR we choose an area of interest, which could be a city square, for example.  Then we collect georeferenced information about the area we have chosen. Currently we use imagery captured specifically for that viewpoint site, but this will soon allow other alternatives to be used, such as existing datasets, for example, a city model, LiDAR scan, oblique imagery, or satellite or overflight imagery.

The next step is to get the BIM model of the design from the architect. To do this we plug into BIM 360, which is the Autodesk data store for BIM models. For smaller projects we can take a model published directly from Revit.

At this point we have the context and we have the BIM model. Then we simply take the mobile device out into the field on a tripod or simply held in the hand, and UrbanPlanAR will use the context to work out exactly where it is and enable you to see in real-time your design within the real world – displaying the BIM model not only “onto”, but visually “within” existing reality.

Unlike Virtual Reality systems where there are cost and time limits to the digitization process, what you see in augmented reality is 3D, infinite resolution that all comes for free as the real world.  What we are showing is a combination of real and virtual. As users stand at the site, they see exactly what is there plus the change. That's what adds to the trust - you are on-site, out in the field or the city square, walking around and showing stakeholders what is actually there with the superimposed virtual model. You can also record it so you can replay it back in the office.  That real-world GIS-based augmented reality we call that GIality. Everything is georeferenced, everything is anchored in the real world. That is what links the virtual to the real world.  You need to know where the virtual building is in real-world coordinates.  The technical challenge is that you also need to know  where the observer is and his/her orientation as he or she walks around the site.

Who do you foresee is the end user of UrbanPlanAR ?

I would say that the primary application is early stage project feasibility and development for a new building. It could be used by the architect or by the developer who is funding the architect. It could also be used as a sales tool at this stage.

The second stage is the planning stage. When you are looking at permitting you need the convince the city or town council, who are the custodians of the city. Typically landscape architects are hired to develop and present the environmental statement and impact of the project to the city planner. But we now live in a world where we no longer have to rely on consultants to convey information.  Nowadays the developer may do this him or herself.  The city or town planners may also be users - as validators of what has been presented. UrbanPlanAR broadens the breadth and depth of 3D information available about the project.  It is also interactive in that the architect can make changes to the BIM model and synchronize that to the users.  Another advantage is that the users can go out to the site at any time to inspect some detail of the design that they may have missed.

What we have found useful is to interactively display different surfaces or finishes, different building heights, and different models. Preconstruction changes are very easy to do.  The architect goes away after getting feedback from stakeholders, creates a new or modified BIM model, uploads it the cloud, and then a user synchronizes with the store and takes it out to the site.  By doing this at the feasibility stage, early on in the planning process, communities become more involved and don't see what is being presented as almost a fait accompli. You want them to leave feeling they are actively involved in the design process - then you get more buy-in and there is less likely to be an appeal during the construction stage.  

Does the BIM model have to be a Revit model ?

We integrate with BIM 360 today and we are planning to support Bentley BIM.  In addition Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) is one of our supported file formats.  But this is not yet equivalent to importing files directly from Revit or Bentley BIM, because exported IFC files from some BIM vendors do not support texture.  

What types of hardware does your software run on ?

We support the iPad Pro and we are working on a Microsoft Surface port.

Does UrbanPlanAR require preprocessing in the cloud or on a desktop ?

Neither the BIM model nor the geoferenced context ends up being the operational model we need to do the localization, but both are valid inputs.  All the input data including GIS context and Revit model is preprocessed on a desktop or in the cloud and then synchronized to the handheld.

Crispin, you already have a product that is designed for rural environments but also relies on augmented reality.  Can you tell me about that ?

Yes it is called VentusAR, and it is designed to work in a rural environment.  It has been targeted on visualizing wind farms and solar farms for land owners, communities and planners because these farms are very contentious issues. Before our our product became available, the standard methodology was to take photographs out in the field, go back to the office, process them on the desktop to incorporate the proposed wind or solar farm, send the resulting images to the printer and then show the picttures to the stakeholders. Because of the time and cost it tended to be done late in the planning process, which made it difficult to make changes.

Late last year for the first time we used VentusAR for visualizing transmission towers.  And a few weeks ago we did our first modeling of transmission lines.  As with UrbanPlanAR, VentusAR uses the tablet’s integrated camera, GPS position and 3D gaming capabilities to create an accurate, location-specific, realistic view of transmission tower models in context.  You can investigate different scenarios with different stock models like towers, turbines, and panels. It works well in a rural environment because our georeferenced information about the real world is typically a digital terrain model. In a rural environment, if your GPS is out by 5 meters and you are looking at something a hundred meters away, it doesn't matter that much.  In an urban environment where you need more precision and can't rely on GNSS, you need a more sophisticated approach, which is what we have done together with Heriot-Watt University for UrbanPlanAR.

The project is supported by Innovate UK, the United Kingdom’s innovation agency (Project 102040).